Final thoughts on Philemon

I began this series of posts with an attempt to look at early Christianity's attitude toward slaves and slavery, not because it's an issue that's been particularly on my mind, or even because it's a topic that catches my eye in the letter to Philemon, but ironically, because it doesn't. Having written these posts, I now realize that I have always skipped over the passages in the Bible that are directed toward slaves. "Doesn't apply to me," was what I was thinking I guess. An issue settled worldwide long ago, a rare example of moral progress in the human race. (There are still slaves in the world, but nowhere does anyone openly try to defend it.) Why would anyone spend any time thinking about the moral arguments surrounding slavery now? Even when reading the letter of Philemon I never gave the issue any thought; it's buried, really, beneath the overpowering personal story of Philemon and Onesimus.

What always noticed most about Philemon was the intense love Paul shows for his disciples, but I found it impossible to put an explanation of Philemon into words without confronting slavery. Not because of any interest in apologetics on my part certainly. Apologetics is a worthy activity, but it's not for me. Always thinking about what other people are saying about you is a distraction from progress in your own discipline, for me at least.

No, the reason I needed to confront slavery was because of a cognitive dissonance that forms when I try to put myself in the scene of the letter. Slavery is a barrier to our understanding the ancients. We feel revulsion at the thought of it; we can't understand how they could live with it in their midst. If we can't put ourselves in the author's place with conviction then there has to be something missing in our understanding of them.

In this instance I don't think I've broken that barrier. When I imagine myself in Paul's place I still see myself thinking, "All people belong to God, but that person owns that person; isn't that stealing?" "No man can serve two masters."

But as a result of these posts I have re-read some passages of the Bible that I'd never paid attention to before, and I have learned some fascinating things about the early Christians. They truly believed that a person's status as slave or free was beneath God's consideration: when people talk about Christianity containing the seed that ultimately destroyed slavery, they aren't just engaging in wishful thinking. I can now understand why Christianity was so popular among slaves. It showed them that in the only sense that really mattered, they were already free. I don't know if this idea was revolutionary at the time, but the fact that Christians really believed it must have been. If we can't put ourselves in Paul's position and understand how he could fail to denounce the institution of slavery, we can put ourselves in the midst a society that accepted slavery as the natural order of things, and understand how revolutionary this idea must have been, and how liberating it must have been for the slaves who accepted it.

Reading Paul's directive to slaves in Ephesians, that they must perform their services their masters as if they were serving Christ, also gave me a much deeper appreciation for the Christian directive to emulate Christ in his service of others. How often have we felt that God asks too much of us: "Sure, we should be humble," we think, "but do I really have to go that low? Do I have to tolerate that person? Perform that job?" Yet Paul felt that even being a slave was not humility enough, unless it were done with the same love Jesus showed for us when he made himself a slave for us. "No," is Paul answer, "You must not just tolerate that person or perform that job, you must make yourself a slave to that person and love them as Jesus loved us, and perform that job as if it were Christ himself that had asked you to do it."

Philemon part 4

This is part 4 of a multi-part post. Here are the links to parts 1, 2 and 3.

In this series of posts I seem to be commenting as much on Ephesians as Philemon. Anyway, to continue with Paul's appeal for Onesimus:

(Formerly he was useless to you, but now he is indeed useful to you and to me.)

A pun on Onesimus' name, which means "useful." I wonder whether this name tells us anything about Onesimus. It doesn't sound like a name a mother would give to her child; it sounds like a name for a slave. Does this indicate that Onesimus was a slave from childhood? I've never heard an opinion on that one way or another.

In any event, Paul is once again reminding Philemon here that any anger he may have over his loss of Onesimus as a slave should be washed away by his joy over gaining him as a brother in Christ. His value to Philemon as a slave is as nothing when compared to his value as a fellow Christian.

Now before diving into details again, it's good to savor the next few verses as a whole:

I am sending him back to you, sending my very heart. I would have been glad to keep him with me, in order that he might serve me on your behalf during my imprisonment for the gospel; but I preferred to do nothing without your consent in order that your goodness might not be by compulsion but of your own free will. Perhaps this is why he was parted from you for a while, that you might have him back for ever, no longer as a slave but more than a slave, as a beloved brother, especially to me but how much more to you, both in the flesh and in the Lord.

This is an impossible task, commenting on Philemon. Like trying to convince someone of the greatness of a painting by talking about it. If you're not already touched by the incredible example of love that Paul demonstrates in this letter, and by his intense desire that harmony and love should reign among Christians, then no commentary will lead you there. And if you're not touched, well, you're not alone. I've yet to meet anyone else who enjoys this letter as much as I do.

Well anyway, to dive in again:

I am sending him back to you, sending my very heart.

A truly moving expression of Paul's love for Onesimus, and a formidable shield for Onesimus against Philemon's anger.

I would have been glad to keep him with me, in order that he might serve me on your behalf during my imprisonment for the gospel;

Paul's reluctance to part with Onesimus is another expression of his love for him. It's also a strong hint that Paul would like Onesimus to return to him. Paul attempts to blunt any anger Philemon may have toward Onesimus by encouraging him to look upon Onesimus' absence not in terms of labor lost, but as Philemon's opportunity to render service to Paul's mission.

but I preferred to do nothing without your consent in order that your goodness might not be by compulsion but of your own free will.

Paul won't even let the thought that Philemon might disagree with Paul's assessment of the situation enter into his mind; this is truly an offer Philemon cannot refuse.

In all seriousness though, Paul's motivation for sending Onesimus back is becoming clear. The rift between these two men cannot be healed simply by Paul demanding it. Paul wants these men to be truly reconciled. By returning, Onesimus is throwing himself upon Philemon's mercy. Philemon would be within his rights (legally) to have Onesimus tortured, branded on the forehead with an "F" (for "fugitivus"), fitted with an iron collar, or even killed. To us, looking upon this scene from a distance of two thousand years, Onesimus seems perfectly safe: the terms of Paul's letter render it inconceivable that Philemon would harm Onesimus in any way. But put yourself in Onesimus' shoes for a moment. The weight of all Roman society is against you. None of Philemon's friends or associates would have cared, or even given it any thought at all, if Philemon had treated Onesimus in the cruelest manner. There has to be real trepidation in Onesimus' heart. An act of mercy on Philemon's part will have real weight. It will mean something.

Perhaps this is why he was parted from you for a while, that you might have him back for ever, no longer as a slave but more than a slave, as a beloved brother, especially to me but how much more to you, both in the flesh and in the Lord.

Paul hints that Onesimus' escape may have been part of God's plan for Onesimus, because it led him to Paul, who led him to Christ. And in any event, Paul encourages Philemon to realize that he should not want to have Onesimus as a slave, which as we have seen is a distinction God cares nothing about, and which will certainly not follow Philemon into eternity. What he should want for Onesimus is brotherhood in Christ, which matters a great deal to God, and which will last for all time.

Now it's time to savor Paul's final plea to Philemon on Onesimus' behalf:

So if you consider me your partner, receive him as you would receive me. If he has wronged you at all, or owes you anything, charge that to my account. I, Paul, write this with my own hand, I will repay it--to say nothing of your owing me even your own self. Yes, brother, I want some benefit from you in the Lord. Refresh my heart in Christ. Confident of your obedience, I write to you, knowing that you will do even more than I say.

Verse by verse:

So if you consider me your partner, receive him as you would receive me.

Given this instruction, it's hard to imagine Philemon harming Onesimus at all.

If he has wronged you at all, or owes you anything, charge that to my account.

Paul sweeps away any final objection Philemon may have to reconciliation and puts himself completely in Onesimus' place by offering to personally pay any debt Philemon feels Onesimus owes him.

There's something jarring about this descent into the concrete, "fleshly" matter of monetary compensation for Philemon, after all of the talk of receiving him in the brotherhood of Christ and the spiritual aspects of Onesimus' return. This is a reminder of the fact that Christianity isn't a religion of fuzz and gauze. Jesus didn't descend to Earth, preach the Sermon on the Mount, and then float off to heaven in a cloud. He lived among us, acted out his ministry here in this world, sweated and bled and felt the pain of this world. And neither are we allowed to try to escape this world in happy, gauzy platitudes. As James says, "If a brother or sister has nothing to wear and has no food for the day, and one of you says to them, 'Go in peace, keep warm, and eat well,' but you do not give them the necessities of the body, what good is it?"

I, Paul, write this with my own hand, I will repay it--to say nothing of your owing me even your own self. Yes, brother, I want some benefit from you in the Lord. Refresh my heart in Christ.

It was unusual for Paul to write his letters himself; most were dictated to a secretary. This we know because he points out the exceptions in several letters. E.g. in Galatians 6 he writes, "See with what large letters I am writing to you in my own hand!" Many have speculated that he had poor eyesight, and wasn't able to write for himself regularly.

The fact that Paul writes to Philemon in his own hand reinforces the personal nature of his plea and adds needed emphasis to Paul's offer. He is not making a token gesture; he will repay Philemon for whatever Onesimus owes him, without, we notice, even knowing what that might be.

Of course, there's again the air of an "offer he can't refuse" here. It would be inconceivable for Philemon to send Paul a bill. But just as Philemon's mercy is real, Paul's offer is real. We can have no doubt from reading this that if Philemon had sent Paul a bill, he would, with a heavy heart, have paid it.

Confident of your obedience, I write to you, knowing that you will do even more than I say.

If this letter is representative of Paul's powers of persuasion then it's small wonder he was able to almost singlehandedly build a worldwide Church. Philemon really has no choice but to comply with Paul's wishes, and even to do what Paul has not demanded explicitly, which is to grant Onesimus his freedom.

At the same time, prepare a guest room for me, for I am hoping through your prayers to be granted to you. Epaphras, my fellow prisoner in Christ Jesus, sends greetings to you, and so do Mark, Aristarchus, Demas, and Luke, my fellow workers. The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ be with your spirit.

Possibly one last nudge from Paul here in this reminder that Paul and Philemon may meet again one day. A standard farewell from Paul and a job well done.

I'll reserve a few final thoughts on Philemon for one last post before I (mercifully) move on to other topics.

Philemon part 3

This is part three of a multi-part post. See part one here and part two here.

Continuing with the commentary, we pick up the text of the letter just after the greeting:

I thank my God always when I remember you in my prayers, because I hear of your love and of the faith which you have toward the Lord Jesus and all the saints, and I pray that the sharing of your faith may promote the knowledge of all the good that is ours in Christ. For I have derived much joy and comfort from your love, my brother, because the hearts of the saints have been refreshed through you.

Paul offers thanks to God for the acts of love and charity that Philemon has performed on behalf of the "saints," i.e. his fellow Christians. What these acts are we don't know, but they must have gone beyond simply lending his house for Sunday services. He must have been a generous man, active in the community, a model for others demonstrating what a Christian should be.

Paul prays that Philemon will continue to be a good role model, that his efforts on behalf of the Christian community will "promote the knowledge of all the good that is ours in Christ." This sets up the appeal Paul is about to make to Philemon. He is about to ask Philemon to make some choices that may be hard for him, but that will be an example of Christian love and charity for all to see.

Accordingly, though I am bold enough in Christ to command you to do what is required, yet for love's sake I prefer to appeal to you--I, Paul, an old man and now a prisoner also for Christ Jesus--I appeal to you for my child, Onesimus, whose father I have become in my imprisonment.

As we get into Paul's deeply moving appeal on behalf of Onesimus, I'm again reluctant to interrupt the flow of the text with commentary. This letter is best read start to finish, without interruption. But I have to break in somewhere.

OK, bit by bit again:

Accordingly,

This one word shows that what Paul is about to ask follows directly from his desire that Philemon set an example of Christian love. To refuse would be to fail to live up to the high standards Christ demands of us.

though I am bold enough in Christ to command you to do what is required,

Paul makes no bones about his authority over his converts. He has led them to eternal life; there's really no limit on what they owe him in return. It's hard to imagine a priest or bishop these days attempting to exercise this kind of authority over a parishioner; these days the Church is more circumspect when it comes to making demands on individual Christians.

Of course, part of the reason for Paul's boldness is that he is no ordinary priest or bishop, and he knows it. The clarity with which the Church fathers conceived their role in salvation history is astounding. They were standing at the apex of history, the great inflection point, to which all previous history had been pointing, and from which the world would be forever changed. All of God's 2000-plus year journey with Israel had had the single purpose of laying the groundwork for the moment at which the fathers now stood. Revelation had reached fullness. No such moment would ever come again.

Paul in particular, referred to himself as none other than the Apostle to the Gentiles. The Twelve's job was to convert Israel, Paul was to handle the rest of the world. He was God's spokesman on Earth, bearer of the final revelation. He was the guy who finally got to see the rest of God's plan, who got to understand what the prophets of old could only catch fleeting glimpses of, and it was his job to explain it all to the world. He knew that there would never be another like himself, because there would never be another moment like this in all time. As he says in Ephesians 3:

To me, though I am the very least of all the saints, this grace was given, to preach to the Gentiles the inscrutable riches of Christ, and to make all men see what is the plan of the mystery hidden for ages and generations in God who created all things; that through the Church the manifold wisdom of God might now be made known to the principalities and authorities in the heavens. This was according to the eternal purpose that he accomplished in Christ Jesus our Lord, in whom we have boldness of speech and confidence of access through faith in him.

To conceive of this role for yourself you almost have to be insane, a megalomaniac. Yet the fathers never betray any hint of doubt about their mission, and manage to carry it out with a mixture of humility and piety that is, apart from their astonishing success, perhaps the most miraculous aspect of their ministries.

OK that was quite a detour. Back to Philemon:

yet for love's sake I prefer to appeal to you

A cynical person may see this as a good cop / bad cop act on Paul's part, an "I certainly hope you make the right decision, because I don't want to have to put the hurt on you" sort of thing. There's probably a grain of truth in that; after all the tone of this letter is both solicitous and firm. But I believe it's also true that Paul really does want Philemon to do the right thing for the right reason. He wants this to be an opportunity for Philemon to demonstrate real Christian love; for Philemon and Onesimus to become true brothers in Christ. It isn't enough for Philemon to begrudgingly forgive Onesimus only because he was forced to, and to forever resent him for it.

I, Paul, an old man and now a prisoner also for Christ Jesus--I appeal to you for my child, Onesimus, whose father I have become in my imprisonment.

I just find this infinitely touching. Paul stands before Philemon as a father pleading for his child. Who could listen to this plea, the plea of a man grown old in the service of the Lord, who had suffered as much as any man ever has in God's service, who was even now imprisoned and facing an uncertain future; who could refuse this man's plea on behalf of his child? Because in reading this letter there really can be no doubt about the authenticity of Paul's feelings for Onesimus.

Philemon part 2

This is part two of a multi-part post. See part one here. Part one was the warm-up. Somehow I wound up commenting on Ephesians in order to comment on Philemon. In any case, here's the actual commentary on Philemon.

Paul, a prisoner for Christ Jesus, and Timothy our brother, To Philemon our beloved fellow worker and Apphia our sister and Archippus our fellow soldier, and the church in your house; Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

The ancients really knew how to start a letter. I actually saw a "loose" translation of the Bible once that had this as "Dear Philemon," and had the letter end with "Sincerely, Paul." AAACK! You might as well translate Shakespeare's Sonnet 18 as, "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? No, but you're pretty damn good looking." I wanted to comment on some of the text within Paul's greeting, but I couldn't bear to chop it up. Take a moment to savor it before continuing.

OK now bit by bit:

Paul, a prisoner for Christ Jesus

Obviously this letter was written during one of Paul's many imprisonments for preaching the gospel. This is one of the Pauline letters considered indisputably authentic, i.e., written by the one and only Paul of Tarsus. Despite its brevity scholars have deduced a lot about where it was probably written, where Philemon probably lived, when it was probably written in relation to other letters, what brand of cereal Paul had for breakfast that day, etc. I was raised on the Historical Critical method. It was probably the first lesson I learned at Gonzaga, and I thought it was the greatest thing since sliced cheese. I'm still on awe of the fact that the Church has the guts to let the Scriptures undergo the same scientific analysis that would be given to any other ancient text. But I have to agree with the pope, that if you go overboard with it it turns Scripture reading into trivia hour (O.K. the pope didn't quite put it like that). At some point though, you've got to lay off the historicizing and listen to the text.

Back to the text then. Paul mentions his imprisonment here to emphasize the sacrifices he has made for the gospel, because he is about to ask Philemon to make a sacrifice for Paul (a much smaller one by comparison). It's also an opening of stark, poetic beauty.

and Timothy our brother,

One of Paul's companions, and recipient of Paul's Letter to Timothy.

To Philemon our beloved fellow worker and Apphia our sister and Archippus our fellow soldier

Philemon is the owner of the slave Onesimus, who hasn't received mention yet. As a slave owner, he must have been a relatively wealthy man. Paul greets him as a "beloved fellow worker," a colleague in the gospel. Apphia was probably his wife, and Archippus possibly a son.

and the church in your house

I recall reading that one possible explanation of this is that Philemon had a large household of servants and slaves, and that the entire household converted to Christianity when he did. But now I can't find any reference to that idea; all the references I can find agree that this indicates that Philemon must have regularly held the Church services that would one day be labeled (somewhat randomly) the "Mass" in his house. In these very early days, the Mass was celebrated in individual homes rather than in dedicated church buildings. See this for a nice description of what the early Mass looked like. This would explain the effusive compliments Paul lavishes on Philemon in this letter. Philemon must have been a leading figure in the Christian community in his city.

Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

A truly beautiful blessing to start the letter off.

Before the Letter to Philemon - Slavery and the early Church

The little letter to Philemon is one of my favorites, but I'm finding it difficult to comment on. It is the shortest and most personal letter written by Paul, a letter that veritably pulsates with the warmth and magnetism of the Apostle. Paul is a man of fiery emotions, whether he's railing against the discord within the Christian community at Corinth in I Corinthians, or expressing his deep personal affection for his disciples, who he calls his "fellow workers", "beloved brothers," and his "children". Paul's heart seems unable to contain the love he feels for this new Christian community that he has created. It flows out of him like an irresistible force, drawing everyone around him into his orbit. From reading this letter it's easy to see why his missions were so wildly successful.

The intense warmth of this letter makes it so compelling, but when commenting on it I'm instantly ensnared in issues of slavery, because the two principal figures in the letter are a runaway slave, Onesimus, and his master Philemon. Paul does not intend this letter to be a commentary on slavery, but intends only to make a personal plea for the forgiveness of and (strongly hinted anyway) the emancipation of one individual slave, Onesimus. Regardless, the argument he doesn't make, that Onesimus should be freed because slavery is intrinsically evil, is what stands out most to the modern reader. It is an uncomfortable reminder of the fact that the early Church did not take a stand against slavery.

This has been explained in many ways. It's been said that the Church was too small to attempt to make such a large-scale change in society, and too weak to survive the confrontation with Rome that would have resulted. And it's been said that the Church's expectation of an imminent perousia rendered any such long-term projects pointless.

Well I think we can safely rule out the idea that the Church was too timid about confronting Rome to take on the issue of slavery. These were people, after all, who preferred in large numbers to go to the arena rather than participate in the rote emperor worship ceremonies of their day, and this at a time when nobody really believed in the divinity of the emperor. Rome was not Persia, where such things were taken seriously. Romans knew that emperor worship was merely an expression of fealty to Rome, but Christians, large numbers of them anyway, preferred death to participation in an act that so contradicted their faith. A lack of contrariness or courage was not their problem.

And it's difficult to judge how expectations of the perousia influenced the Church's attitude toward affecting social change. Certainly there are no passages in Scripture that I know of that say, "Let's hold off on this whole slavery issue guys, Jesus will be back next week anyway." Rather than speculate on that, it's better to draw inferences from what they actually did say about slavery. One of the most striking passages regarding slavery can be found at the end of Ephesians 5 and the beginning of Ephesians 6:

Be subordinate to one another out of reverence for Christ.

Wives should be subordinate to their husbands as to the Lord. For the husband is head of his wife just as Christ is head of the church, he himself the savior of the body. As the church is subordinate to Christ, so wives should be subordinate to their husbands in everything.

Husbands, love your wives, even as Christ loved the church and handed himself over for her to sanctify her, cleansing her by the bath of water with the word, that he might present to himself the church in splendor, without spot or wrinkle or any such thing, that she might be holy and without blemish. So (also) husbands should love their wives as their own bodies. He who loves his wife loves himself. For no one hates his own flesh but rather nourishes and cherishes it, even as Christ does the church, because we are members of his body.

"For this reason a man shall leave (his) father and (his) mother and be joined to his wife, and the two shall become one flesh." This is a great mystery, but I speak in reference to Christ and the church.

In any case, each one of you should love his wife as himself, and the wife should respect her husband.

Children, obey your parents (in the Lord), for this is right. "Honor your father and mother." This is the first commandment with a promise, "that it may go well with you and that you may have a long life on earth."

Fathers, do not provoke your children to anger, but bring them up with the training and instruction of the Lord.

Slaves, be obedient to your human masters with fear and trembling, in sincerity of heart, as to Christ, not only when being watched, as currying favor, but as slaves of Christ, doing the will of God from the heart, willingly serving the Lord and not human beings, knowing that each will be requited from the Lord for whatever good he does, whether he is slave or free.

Masters, act in the same way toward them, and stop bullying, knowing that both they and you have a Master in heaven and that with him there is no partiality.

I am proving unlucky in blogging, because two of the first four posts I've made involve passages that talk about one of the topics most likely to repel modern readers -- subordination of women to men. Well, if anyone remains to read the rest of this, he or (less likely ;-) she should listen to this passage in its entirety, and consider what Paul is doing here. He is looking for ways in which people in all walks of life can subordinate their own needs and desires to those of others, and to follow Christ and the Church in the path of humble service. As Christ served the Church, and as the Church serves Christ, so should men and women serve one another in justice.

It's perhaps tangential to this post, and so should be reserved mainly for a future one, but Paul's commandment to husbands is no less demanding than his commandment to wives, i.e. to "love your wives even as Christ loved the church and handed himself over for her." "Handed himself over" of course refers to Jesus' being handed over to the Jewish and Roman authorities at the time of his Passion. This isn't, "Take care of the little woman, because she's weak and not too bright," which is what many people hear when they read Ephesians. Paul is asking men to dedicate their whole being to the service of their wives, just as Christ dedicated himself to the service of all, even to the point of torture and death.

As discussed in previous posts, the Christian path to God can be termed the "annihilation of self." As Jesus said in Luke 9: 23-24, "If anyone wishes to come after me, he must deny himself and take up his cross daily and follow me. For whoever wishes to save his life will lose it, but whoever loses his life for my sake will save it." Christians' path to God is one of subverting their own needs and desires, their very lives, in order to follow Christ on the path of service, even though it should demand the ultimate suffering and sacrifice.

And what does this passage indicate about Paul's opinion of slavery? In the husband-wife relationship Paul finds a mysterious reflection of the relationship between Christ and the Church; in support of his vision of obedience in the parent-child relationship he appeals to the solemn commandment of God. But in contrast, Paul doesn't offer any cosmic significance for the master-slave relationship, nor any sense that it is grounded in true justice. Rather, he seems to be saying, "Pretend that when serving your master you are actually serving Christ. Use your service as an opportunity to act out on Earth the service you wish you could offer directly to Christ. And take heart in the fact that you don't really serve anyone but God, that you and your master will one day be judged by God for your actions, and not for your station in life." These words offer the slave a challenging and potentially fruitful path to Heaven, but hardly constitute a ringing endorsement of slavery.

And Paul's directive to slave owners is blunt and absolutely stunning: "Act in the same way towards them," where the "way" in question is service to the other as if that person were Christ himself. It is so stunning in fact that I had to verify the text in several different translations before I could believe that Paul really said it. I have to wonder how slavery could continue as a viable institution in a society where this directive was actually being carried out.

Still, if the Christian slave has this path to God, what reason would there be for opposing slavery? After all, what could be more important than one's salvation? The reasons that come first to the American mind are not the ones that would have come to Paul's mind: that all men are endowed by their Creator with the right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. The concept of the rights of man would not be developed for many centuries. And from the standpoint of the individual Christian, it is not the healthiest argument to make. "What about my rights?" is antithetical to the Christian way of life: Christ did not demand his rights as he was being led to Calvary. The path of the Christian is one of self-sacrifice, not self-protection or self-fulfillment. (A Christian might argue that "If my rights are not protected then my neighbor's are not, so I act only on his or her behalf," but only someone in an advanced spiritual state can make that argument with honesty.)

I believe the Church today would make its argument against slavery on the basis of the dignity of the human person, which is grounded in reflection on the fact that men and women are created in the likeness of God, and are children of God. This sounds to me like the Church's version of the rights of man argument, but I really know very little about it. It may make a good topic for a future post.

So if thoughts about the rights and dignity of man were not sufficiently developed in Paul's time to serve as a basis for his reasoning, what arguments against slavery might have occurred to Paul, in fact did occur to Paul in the letter to Philemon? That is something I'll expand upon in the commentary on Philemon in the following post.